In addition, because of a lack of pertinent studies, it remains unclear whether all the symptoms described here are manifested equally in both sexes or in individuals with comorbid substance use disorders. Finally, for a systematic review, ideally, two individuals should review articles for eligibility. However, in this article, only one author (A.B.) reviewed and identified the articles for inclusion and the second reviewer only reviewed the excluded articles. Although it has been nearly 30 years since the publication of the Satel et al. (1993) review of protracted withdrawal syndromes, the PAWS field has not advanced remarkably apart from animal studies, which was not the present review’s focus. Thus, research efforts into elucidating PAWS have been stalled for more than two decades, with minimal research explicitly exploring the phenomenon of protracted withdrawal, which may be a consequence of the failure to recognize PAWS as a diagnostic entity formally.
Support for Me and My Family
- PAWS can make day-to-day tasks uncomfortable and, if a person is dealing with addiction, lead to relapses during recovery.
- Post-acute withdrawal syndrome (PAWS) was a phrase first used more than 20 years ago to describe a phenomenon of relatively milder, but persistently troublesome withdrawal symptoms that lingered in some individuals who had discontinued benzodiazepine therapy.
- We excluded commentaries, reviews, editorials, and case reports; we did not restrict the study’s data or location.
- If you are still experiencing withdrawal symptoms after three days, talk to your healthcare provider.
In one trial, gabapentin appeared to outperform lorazepam during PAWS for abstinence, cravings, and tolerability (Myrick et al., 2009). However, Trevisan and colleagues (2008) did not replicate these findings when they compared 1,200 mg/day of gabapentin to valproic acid (1,500 mg/day or less) and placebo for PAWS. Pregabalin is a newer gabapentinoid with more rapid absorption and time to peak serum concentration (1 vs. 3 hours to reach peak levels) and a longer half-life elimination time, allowing twice-daily rather than thrice-daily dosing (Mason et al., 2018). Post-acute withdrawal, whether mild or serious, is a necessary process in early recovery from alcohol or other drug dependence. Think of the withdrawal syndrome as the brain’s way of correcting the chemical imbalances suffered during active addiction.
Stage 2: Moderate Withdrawal
The prognosis often depends on the severity of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Mortality is also greater in patients who progress to delirium tremens. Moderate symptoms include hallucinations and alcohol withdrawal seizures (rum fits) that can occur 12 to 24 hours after cessation of alcohol and are typically generalized in nature. About 50% of patients who have had a withdrawal seizure will progress to delirium tremens. A doctor may also prescribe a sedative drug, such as a benzodiazepine, to help reduce withdrawal symptoms such as restlessness or agitation.
Is there a difference between acute and post-acute withdrawal syndrome?
We hope that the present review’s findings—by synthesizing literature across approximately four decades of research—may create a stronger argument for formalizing PAWS as a diagnostic entity. Furthermore, considering that PAWS symptoms are mainly related to the neuro-adaptive changes of GABA and NMDA systems, traditional treatments for AUD—such as naltrexone, nalmefene, and disulfiram—may not be able to suppress PAWS symptoms (Caputo et al., 2020). We applied the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for randomized controlled trials (Higgins et al., review of answer house sober living 2011). In brief, this tool appraises the risk of bias in trials attributable to randomization, allocation concealment, blinding, participant attrition, selective reporting, and other sources of bias (e.g., unclear adherence to treatment, allegiance bias). One reviewer (A.B.) appraised the study’s risk of bias, which was confirmed by the remaining reviewers (D.C. and N.E.). For coding purposes, studies receiving one high risk of bias rating in any individual domain or two unclear risks of bias ratings had a high overall risk of bias.
It may seem like a long time to wait before you get better, but it will happen. The authors acknowledge the University of Calgary Health Sciences Librarians for their support in developing our search strategy. We also recognize that our work takes place on historical and contemporary Indigenous lands, including the territories of Treaties 6, 7 & 8 and the homeland of the Métis. We also acknowledge the many Indigenous communities that have been forged in urban centers across Alberta. Pharmacological treatments involving antidepressants, sleep-promoting agents, anticonvulsants, gabapentinoids, and two novel therapies have been explored for therapeutic efficacy in PAWS management (Table 1), which we summarize here. Consequently, the goal of this article was to summarize the extant literature examining the neurobiology and symptomatology of PAWS, paralleling findings from a complimentary review focusing on PAWS treatment.
The hallmark of management for severe symptoms is the administration of long-acting benzodiazepines. The most commonly used benzodiazepines are intravenous diazepam or intravenous lorazepam for management. Patients with severe withdrawal symptoms may require escalating doses and intensive care level monitoring. Early consultation with a toxicologist is recommended to assist with aggressive management alcohol and seizures can alcohol or withdrawal trigger a seizure as these patients may require benzodiazepine doses at a level higher than the practitioner is comfortable with to manage their symptoms. Risk factors for alcohol use disorder include a family history of problems with alcohol, depression and other mental health conditions, and genetic factors. People with alcohol use disorder should be monitored by a medical professional when withdrawing from alcohol.
Disturbance in serotonin function may mediate acute and protracted alcohol withdrawal; however, there is a lack of consensus (Marcinkiewcz et al., 2016). One study detected a relative increase in the enzymatic degradation of tryptophan, the precursor of serotonin, by indoleamine dioxygenase, suggesting a correlation between PAWS and decreased serotonin availability (Farren & Dinan, 1996). During protracted abstinence, increased tryptophan degradation (measured by kynurenine, a tryptophan metabolite) and reduced serotonin levels appear to induce PAWS symptoms, including fatigue, irritability, and sleep disturbances (Gleissenthall et al., 2014).
PAWS, or Post-acute Withdrawal Syndrome, refers to the more lasting effects of withdrawal that may make it very hard to stay sober. Using substances for a long time or using a heavy amount will lead to more severe PAWS symptoms. PAWS symptoms show up as the brain resets from alcohol or drug use.
The emotional and mental distress caused by PAWS can be tough to handle, but if you’re aware of the causes and prepare yourself for the symptoms, you’ll be well-equipped to face them head on. Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website. Propofol is used to manage refractory fluoxetine withdrawal cases of delirium tremens, and baclofen can be used to treat muscle spasms. Withdrawal is different for everyone; there really is no “normal” and it can be hard to predict an individual person’s experience. Mild symptoms may appear similar to a hangover, but they last longer than 24 hours.
